G.K. CHESTERTON: LOOKING BACK 111 YEARS

(From p. 731 of the Nov. 25, 1905 issue of the Outlook)

As I was preparing to sell an old magazine on eBay this morning, I came across a critique of a young G.K. Chesterton. It is interesting to reflect on the impact that Chesterton was already having at the age of 31 (born May 29, 1874/died June 14, 1936) and continues to have well over a century later. I am sure we can learn some things from this literary giant and great defender of the faith. 

I have scanned the article which has long been in the public domain because I have not seen it shared any place else and I know others will enjoy reading it and benefit from it. One thing that struck me as I was reading it is a striking resemblance to the work of Eric Metaxas, who has also been criticized for biographical inaccuracies (i.e., in his biography of Bonhoeffer). The example of Chesterton should remind us that we should not be so scathing in our criticisms of fellow believers.

The following scans are from the November 25, 1905 issue of The Outlook (a magazine that had formerly been called the Christian Union, but had left its roots as liberalism had begun to seriously infect the Church):

*MORE RESOURCES ON CHESTERTON (and other 20th Century apologists)

ON MIRACLES: WILLIAM PALEY'S RESPONSE TO DAVID HUME

In the opening section ("Preparatory Considerations") of A View to the Evidences of Christianity (1794), William Paley offers a masterful response to David Hume's argument against miracles. This section is presented in full below (and at the bottom of the page there are links to FREE! editions of the entire book, which is a classic cumulative argument for Christianity):

PREPARATORY CONSIDERATIONS. I deem it unnecessary to prove that mankind stood in need of a revelation because I have met with no serious person who thinks that, even under the Christian revelation, we have too much light, or any degree of assurance which is superfluous. I desire, moreover, that in judging of Christianity, it may be remembered that the question lies between this religion and none: for, if the Christian religion be not credible, no one, with whom we have to do, will support the pretensions of any other. 

Suppose, then, the world we live in to have had a Creator; suppose it to appear, from the predominant aim and tendency of the provisions and contrivances observable in the universe, that the Deity, when he formed it, consulted for the happiness of his sensitive creation; suppose the disposition which dictated this counsel to continue; suppose a part of the creation to have received faculties from their Maker, by which they are capable of rendering a moral obedience to his will, and of voluntarily pursuing any end for which he has designed them; suppose the Creator to intend for these, his rational and accountable agents, a second state of existence, in which their situation will be by their behaviour in the first state, by which suppose (and by no other) the objection to the divine government in not putting a difference between the good and the bad, and the inconsistency of this confusion with the care and benevolence discoverable in the works of the Deity is done away; suppose it to be of the utmost importance to the subjects of this dispensation to know what is intended for them, that is, suppose the knowledge of it to be highly conducive to the happiness of the species, a purpose which so many provisions of nature are calculated to promote: Suppose, nevertheless, almost the whole race, either by the imperfection of their faculties, the misfortune of their situation, or by the loss of some prior revelation, to want this knowledge, and not to be likely, without the aid of a new revelation, to attain it; under these circumstances, is it improbable that a revelation should be made? Is it incredible that God should interpose for such a purpose? Suppose him to design for mankind a future state; is it unlikely that he should acquaint him with it? 

Now in what way can a revelation be made, but by miracles? In none which we are able to conceive. Consequently, in whatever degree it is probable, or not very improbable, that a revelation should be communicated to mankind at all: in the same degree is it probable, or not very improbable, that miracles should be wrought. Therefore, when miracles are related to have been wrought in the promulgating of a revelation manifestly wanted, and, if true, of inestimable value, the improbability which arises from the miraculous nature of the things related is not greater than the original improbability that such a revelation should be imparted by God. 

I wish it, however, to be correctly understood, in what manner, and to what extent, this argument is alleged. We do not assume the attributes of the Deity, or the existence of a future state, in order to prove the reality of miracles. That reality always must be proved by evidence. We assert only, that in miracles adduced in support of revelation there is not any such antecedent improbability as no testimony can surmount. And for the purpose of maintaining this assertion, we contend, that the incredibility of miracles related to have been wrought in attestation of a message from God, conveying intelligence of a future state of rewards and punishments, and teaching mankind how to prepare themselves for that state, is not in itself greater than the event, call it either probable or improbable, of the two following propositions being true: namely, first, that a future state of existence should be destined by God for his human creation; and, secondly, that, being so destined, he should acquaint them with it. It is not necessary for our purpose, that these propositions be capable of proof, or even that, by arguments drawn from the light of nature, they can be made out to be probable; it is enough that we are able to say concerning them, that they are not so violently improbable, so contradictory to what we already believe of the divine power and character, that either the propositions themselves, or facts strictly connected with the propositions (and therefore no further improbable than they are improbable), ought to be rejected at first sight, and to be rejected by whatever strength or complication of evidence they be attested. 

This is the prejudication we would resist. For to this length does a modern objection to miracles go, viz., that no human testimony can in any case render them credible. I think the reflection above stated, that, if there be a revelation, there must be miracles, and that, under the circumstances in which the human species are placed, a revelation is not improbable, or not to any great degree, to be a fair answer to the whole objection. 

But since it is an objection which stands in the very threshold our argument, and, if admitted, is a bar to every proof, and to all future reasoning upon the subject, it may be necessary, before we proceed further, to examine the principle upon which it professes to be founded; which principle is concisely this, That it is contrary to experience that a miracle should be true, but not contrary to experience that testimony should be false. 

Now there appears a small ambiguity in the term "experience," and in the phrases, "contrary to experience," or "contradicting experience," which it may be necessary to remove in the first place. Strictly speaking, the narrative of a fact is then only contrary to experience, when the fact is related to have existed at a time and place, at which time and place we being present did not perceive it to exist; as if it should be asserted, that in a particular room, and at a particular hour of a certain day, a man was raised from the dead, in which room, and at the time specified, we, being present and looking on, perceived no such event to have taken place. Here the assertion is contrary to experience properly so called; and this is a contrariety which no evidence can surmount. It matters nothing, whether the fact be of a miraculous nature, or not. But although this be the experience, and the contrariety, which Archbishop Tillotson alleged in the quotation with which Mr. Hume opens his Essay, it is certainly not that experience, nor that contrariety, which Mr. Hume himself intended to object. And short of this I know no intelligible signification which can be affixed to the term "contrary to experience," but one, viz., that of not having ourselves experienced anything similar to the thing related, or such things not being generally experienced by others. I say "not generally" for to state concerning the fact in question, that no such thing was ever experienced, or that universal experience is against it, is to assume the subject of the controversy. 

Now the improbability which arises from the want (for this properly is a want, not a contradiction) of experience, is only equal to the probability there is, that, if the thing were true, we should experience things similar to it, or that such things would be generally experienced. Suppose it then to be true that miracles were wrought on the first promulgation of Christianity, when nothing but miracles could decide its authority, is it certain that such miracles would be repeated so often, and in so many places, as to become objects of general experience? Is it a probability approaching to certainty? Is it a probability of any great strength or force? Is it such as no evidence can encounter? And yet this probability is the exact converse, and therefore the exact measure, of the improbability which arises from the want of experience, and which Mr. Hume represents as invincible by human testimony. 

It is not like alleging a new law of nature, or a new experiment in natural philosophy; because, when these are related, it is expected that, under the same circumstances, the same effect will follow universally; and in proportion as this expectation is justly entertained, the want of a corresponding experience negatives the history. But to expect concerning a miracle, that it should succeed upon a repetition, is to expect that which would make it cease to be a miracle, which is contrary to its nature as such, and would totally destroy the use and purpose for which it was wrought. 

The force of experience as an objection to miracles is founded in the presumption, either that the course of nature is invariable, or that, if it be ever varied, variations will be frequent and general. Has the necessity of this alternative been demonstrated? Permit us to call the course of nature the agency of an intelligent Being, and is there any good reason for judging this state of the case to be probable? Ought we not rather to expect that such a Being, on occasions of peculiar importance, may interrupt the order which he had appointed, yet, that such occasions should return seldom; that these interruptions consequently should be confined to the experience of a few; that the want of it, therefore, in many, should be matter neither of surprise nor objection? 

But, as a continuation of the argument from experience, it is said that, when we advance accounts of miracles, we assign effects without causes, or we attribute effects to causes inadequate to the purpose, or to causes of the operation of which we have no experience of what causes, we may ask, and of what effects, does the objection speak? If it be answered that, when we ascribe the cure of the palsy to a touch, of blindness to the anointing of the eyes with clay, or the raising of the dead to a word, we lay ourselves open to this imputation; we reply that we ascribe no such effects to such causes. We perceive no virtue or energy in these things more than in other things of the same kind. They are merely signs to connect the miracle with its end. The effect we ascribe simply to the volition of Deity; of whose existence and power, not to say of whose Presence and agency, we have previous and independent proof. We have, therefore, all we seek for in the works of rational agents—a sufficient power and an adequate motive. In a word, once believe that there is a God, and miracles are not incredible. 

Mr. Hume states the ease of miracles to be a contest of opposite improbabilities, that is to say, a question whether it be more improbable that the miracle should be true, or the testimony false: and this I think a fair account of the controversy. But herein I remark a want of argumentative justice, that, in describing the improbability of miracles, he suppresses all those circumstances of extenuation, which result from our knowledge of the existence, power, and disposition of the Deity; his concern in the creation, the end answered by the miracle, the importance of that end, and its subserviency to the plan pursued in the work of nature. As Mr. Hume has represented the question, miracles are alike incredible to him who is previously assured of the constant agency of a Divine Being, and to him who believes that no such Being exists in the universe. They are equally incredible, whether related to have been wrought upon occasion the most deserving, and for purposes the most beneficial, or for no assignable end whatever, or for an end confessedly trifling or pernicious. This surely cannot be a correct statement. In adjusting also the other side of the balance, the strength and weight of testimony, this author has provided an answer to every possible accumulation of historical proof by telling us that we are not obliged to explain how the story of the evidence arose. Now I think that we are obliged; not, perhaps, to show by positive accounts how it did, but by a probable hypothesis how it might so happen. The existence of the testimony is a phenomenon; the truth of the fact solves the phenomenon. If we reject this solution, we ought to have some other to rest in; and none, even by our adversaries, can be admired, which is not inconsistent with the principles that regulate human affairs and human conduct at present, or which makes men then to have been a different kind of beings from what they are now. 

But the short consideration which, independently of every other, convinces me that there is no solid foundation in Mr. Hume's conclusion, is the following. When a theorem is proposed to a mathematician, the first thing he does with it is to try it upon a simple case, and if it produce a false result, he is sure that there must be some mistake in the demonstration. Now to proceed in this way with what may be called Mr. Hume's theorem. If twelve men, whose probity and good sense I had long known, should seriously and circumstantially relate to me an account of a miracle wrought before their eyes, and in which it was impossible that they should be deceived: if the governor of the country, hearing a rumour of this account, should call these men into his presence, and offer them a short proposal, either to confess the imposture, or submit to be tied up to a gibbet; if they should refuse with one voice to acknowledge that there existed any falsehood or imposture in the case: if this threat were communicated to them separately, yet with no different effect; if it was at last executed; if I myself saw them, one after another, consenting to be racked, burnt, or strangled, rather than live up the truth of their account;—still if Mr. Hume's rule be my guide, I am not to believe them. Now I undertake to say that there exists not a sceptic in the world who would not believe them, or who would defend such incredulity. 

Instances of spurious miracles supported by strong apparent testimony undoubtedly demand examination; Mr. Hume has endeavoured to fortify his argument by some examples of this kind. I hope in a proper place to show that none of them reach the strength or circumstances of the Christian evidence. In these, however, consists the weight of his objection; in the principle itself, I am persuaded, there is none.

*************
*A View of the Evidences of Christianity by William Paley (1743–1805). . Kindle Edition. Location 53-156 (The entire book is FREE! on Kindle, which can be read on any electronic device using the Kindle app available at Amazon). It is also FREE! in PDF files or read online. You will also find a brief introduction to the book. You can also find another brief introduction at The Library of Historical Apologetics (which includes a link to yet another FREE! edition of this work with notes by Richard Whately). You can also find that edition at Google Books.

*For much, much more on miracles, see my blog article article: "Miracles: Resources for Study."

Image Source

WORKS OF 17TH CENTURY APOLOGISTS: Resources for Study

Below are links to the works of 17th Century apologists, which are FREE!....

Most of the questions and allegations brought against Christianity today were already answered soundly by these brilliant and godly men. 

~~~~*********~~~~

*Clicking on the apologist's name will take you to the search results at the University of Pennsylvania's "Online Book" search.

APOLOGISTS OF THE ERA

• *Blaise Pacal (1623-1662). His Pensees should be at the top of every apologist's reading list. You can find my selected bibliography for Pascal and his Pensees here.
• *Charles Leslie (1650-1722). You can find a brief biography of Leslie and an introduction to his Short and Easy Method with the Deists at the Library of Historical Apologetics. You will also find links there where you can access this work online.
• Digital Public Library of America has 48 ebooks in the category "Apologetics--History--17th Century."
• The Online Books Page (University of Pennsylvania) has 6 ebooks in the category "Apologetics--History--17th Century."

GENERAL
ONLINE RESOURCES
*Works of Dead Apologists: Resources for Study
*The Library of Historical Apologetics: An excellent resource by Dr. Timothy McGrew.
*"Juridical Apologists 1600-2000 AD: A Bio-Bibliographical Essay" by Philip Johnson
*Dead Apologists Society: An evangelical Facebook group for discussing the works of past apologists. I encourage you to join.
*"A Course of Readings in Apologetics": Dr. Timothy McGrew's recommended readings include many books from this period.
*Apologetic Methodologies Past and Present: A series of 5 lectures by Phil Fernandes. Part of the Tabor Lecture Series at Western Reformed Seminary.
*Top 10 *FREE* Classic Apologetics Books in ebook and audio
*Brief profiles of apologists from the past at Apologetics315


BOOKS
*A History of Apologetics by Avery Cardinal Dulles. You can find a 3-part review of this book here.
*Christian Apologetics Past and Present (Volume 1, To 1500 AD): A Primary Source Reader, edited by William Edgar and K. Scott Oliphint
*Christian Apologetics Past and Present (Volume 2, From 1500 AD): A Primary Source Reader, edited by William Edgar and K. Scott Oliphint

*Christian Apologetics: An Anthology of Primary Sources, edited by Khaldoun A. Sweis and Chad V. Meister

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662)

Image Source

BLAISE PASCAL: Resources for Study

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) was a brilliant mathematician and scientist and an atheist. But when he came to Christ, his passion was to win his atheist friends and he began to write a unique book of apologetics for that purpose. But he died before he could finish it. His friends collected his notes for this work and published what is known as Pascal's Pensees (French for "thoughts"). 

It has become a classic that every apologist should put at the top of their reading list. I remember hearing Os Guinness saying in one of his lectures that he makes it a habit to read it every year. Peter Kreeft has said that it is an apologetic for our times. Kreeft writes: "He is three centuries ahead of his time. He addresses his apologetic to modern pagans, sophisticated skeptics, comfortable members of the new secular intelligentsia. He is the first to realize the new dechristianized, desacramentalized world and to address it. He belongs to us." (from "Pascal for Today")

This bibliography provides links to some excellent resources for learning from this brilliant and godly man who left us a legacy....

LINKS TO PASCAL'S PENSEES

*Amazon Kindle: FREE

*PDF, etc.: FREE

*Librivox MP3 audio: FREE

*Amazon: paperback 

*Audible

*Christianity for Pagans: Pascal's Pensees Edited, Outlined, and Explained by Peter Kreeft

BIOGRAPHIES OF PASCAL

*Brief Biography at Christian Classics Ethereal Library

*Long Article at the online Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy

*On Pascal by Douglas Groothuis. My Amazon review of this book.

OTHER RESOURCES

VIDEO

*"Pascal's Anthropological Argument" (10 minutes) by Douglas Groothuis

AUDIO

*"Pascal's Wager" by Douglas Groothuis. An excellent lecture by an expert on Pascal.
*"Arguments for God's Existence" by Peter Kreeft (78 minutes). The last half of this lecture is an excellent presentation of Pascal's Wager.
*Kenneth Samples' former podcast, Straight Thinking, contains four episodes that discuss Blaise Pascal: “Blaise Pascal: Man of Reason and Faith,” “Blaise Pascal: Two Apologetics Insights,” “Blaise Pascal: The Wager, Part 1,” and “Blaise Pascal: The Wager, Part 2.”*Apologetic Methodologies Past and Present: A series of 5 lectures by Phil Fernandes. Part of the Tabor Lecture Series at Western Reformed Seminary. One of the lectures includes thoughts on Pascal.

ARTICLES

*"Christian Thinkers 101: A Crash Course on Blaise Pascal" by Kenneth Samples. Part of an excellent series on apologists of the past.
*"The Apologetic Methodology of Pascal" by Phil Fernandes. An excellent 14-page analysis of Pascal's Pensees. FREE.

*"Pascal for Today" by Peter Kreeft. From the Preface to Christianity for Pagans: Pascal's Pensees Edited, Outlined and Explained. FREE.
*"Deposed Royalty: Pascal's Anthropological Argument" (Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society) by Douglas Groothuis. FREE.
*"A Critique of Pascal's Wager: Argument Against Natural Theology" by Douglas Groothuis. FREE.
*"The Truth About Pascal's Wager" by David Marshall. FREE.
*Last Seminary hosts five articles on "Pascal's Wager" that can be download for FREE--with brief abstracts for each.
*Last Seminary hosts 3 articles on "Pascal's Anthropological Argument" that can be download for FREE--with brief abstracts for each.

BOOKS

*Online Books Page at the University of Pennsylvania Library. FREE.

Image Source

WORKS OF DEAD APOLOGISTS: Resources for Study

We can learn a lot from studying the works of apologists who came before us. And doing so gives us a much deeper and broader perspective. And as an added bonus, most of their works can be found on the internet for FREE! Below are links to pages I started for this very purpose and a couple of other excellent resources. I hope to eventually expand this page to include all apologists of the past 2000 years.

MY PAGES SO FAR
*Works of 17th Century Apologists
*Works of 18th Century Apologists
*Works of 19th Century Apologists
*Works of 20th Century Apologists

AUDIO
*Eight lectures by John Robbins covering: The Early Church, Augustine, Anselm, Thomas Aquinas, Calvin and Luther, Butler and Paley, Schleiermacher & 
Kierkegaard, Twentieth Century Confusion.
*Historical Apologetics by C. Gregg Singer: "an overview of apologetics through the centuries." (24 lectures)
*Historical Apologetics by Phil Fernandes (28 lectures)

ARTICLES
*"Christian Thinkers 101: A Crash Course on Irenaeus" by Kenneth Samples. From an excellent series of articles introducing major apologists of the past. At Samples' article, scroll down and find more articles in the series.
*"Rhetoric as Apologetic- Can we learn from ancient apologetics?" by J.W. Wartick

BOOKS
*Faith Thinkers: 30 Christian Apologists You Should Know by Robert Bowman, Jr. Highly recommended. A concise and readable introduction to 30 of the most important apologists of the past 2000 years.
*A History of Apologetics by Avery Cardinal Dulles. You can find a 3-part review of this book here.
*Christian Apologetics Past and Present (Volume 1, To 1500 AD): A Primary Source Reader, edited by William Edgar and K. Scott Oliphint
*Christian Apologetics Past and Present (Volume 2, From 1500 AD): A Primary Source Reader, edited by William Edgar and K. Scott Oliphint
*Faith Has Its Reasons by Kenneth Boa and Robert Bowman, Jr. FREE.

*Christian Apologetics: An Anthology of Primary Sources, edited by Khaldoun A. Sweis and Chad V. Meister
*Apologetics in the Roman Empire: Pagans, Jews and Christians, edited by Mark Edwards, et al
*In Defence of Christianity: Early Christian Apologists (Early Christianity in the Context of Antiquity), edited by Jakob Engberg, et al


OTHER ONLINE RESOURCES
*The Library of Historical Apologetics: An excellent resource by Dr. Timothy McGrew.
*"A Course of Readings in Apologetics": Dr. Timothy McGrew's recommended readings include many books from this period.
*Classic Works of Apologetics Online: A massive and excellent site listing apologists alphabetically. Definitely worth checking out.
*"Juridical Apologists 1600-2000 AD: A Bio-Bibliographical Essay" by Philip Johnson
*Dead Apologists Society: An evangelical Facebook group for discussing the works of past apologists. I encourage you to join.
*Top 10 *FREE* Classic Apologetics Books in ebook and audio
*Brief profiles of apologists from the past at Apologetics315
*Christian History Magazine has an entire issue devoted to Thomas Aquinas (which is FREE in PDF).
*Digital Public Library of America has 69 ebooks in the category "Apologetics--History--Early church, ca.30 to 600 AD."
*Digital Public Library of America has 7 ebooks in the category "Apologetics--History--Middle Ages, 600 to 1500."
*The Online Books Page (University of Pennsylvania) has 44 ebooks in the category "Apologetics--Early Works to 1800."
*The Online Books Page (University of Pennsylvania) has 12 ebooks in the category "Apologetics--History--Early church, ca.30 to 600 AD."
*The Online Books Page (University of Pennsylvania) has 1 ebook in the category "Apologetics--History--Middle Ages, 600 to 1500."


**Also check out my growing 
MASTER LIST OF APOLOGETIC RESOURCES 
....and 1000s of *FREE!* ebooks & audiobooks for Apologetics & Bible Study....plus millions more for general reading!

Robert Boyle (1627-1691), 

an intellectual giant who was the father of modern chemistry and made important discoveries in physics and other areas of science, also. He was also a devout Christian and wrote on the relationship of Christianity to science and in his will endowed what became known as the Boyle Lectures, annual lectures exploring the relationship between "natural philosophy" (science) and Christianity.

WORKS OF 20TH CENTURY APOLOGISTS: Resources for Study

Below are links to the works of 20th Century apologists who have died and now have no need for apologetics (1 Corinthians 13:8-12). :)

~~~~***************~~~~

*NOTE: Clicking on the apologist's name (when available) will take you to the search results at the University of Pennsylvania's "Online Book" search.

• RAVI ZACHARIAS (1946-2020). Biography, etc. of Ravi at RZIM. Bibliography at Faith Thinkers.
• ROBERT DICK WILSON (1856-1930). Wilson was an Old Testament scholar and defender of the text and historicity of the Old Testament. He was an incredibly gifted linguist who knew 45 languages (26 related to the study of the Old Testament). Check out this 4-minute video about Wilson by Josh McDowell. A brief biography and bibliography at Wikipedia. A 16-page biography by Brian Nicks in The Master's Seminary Journal. A complete chronological bibliography of Wilson's works at the website of the Presbyterian Church in America Historical Center. Wilson's best known work: A Scientific Investigation of the Old Testament, which can be found FREE here.
• Sir William Mitchell Ramsay (1851-1939). Highly recommended is Ramsay's magnum Opus: St. Paul the Traveler and the Roman Citizen  (1895, 1907) which is FREE at Christian Classics Ethereal Library, where you will also find a nice summary of the book and a short biography of Ramsay. And here is a short article by Don Stewart quoting from this book and showing how Sir William Ramsay is related to settling the question of the historicity of Acts. Sir William M. Ramsay: Archaeologist and New Testament Scholar -- A Survey of His Contribution to the Study of the New Testament by W. Ward Gasque, an excellent 95-page book about Ramsay and his contribution to New Testament study--available in a FREE PDF file. (NOTE: The link for the PDF file of the book is located below the title and publisher's info and immediately above the Table of Contents.) For a list of his later writings see "The Later Ramsay: A Supplementary Bibliography of the Published Writings of Sir William Mitchell Ramsay" by Colin J. Hemer
• GLEASON ARCHER (1916-2004). A brief biography and bibliography. Archer's biography printed in memorial in the Journal of The Evangelical Theological Society. Dr. Archer "Lectures on Assumed Errors in the Old Testament."
• F.F. BRUCE (1910-1990). "Theology on the Web" hosts an extensive list of his works (with links and many FREE pdf files). "Theopedia" has a brief biography and other resources for Bruce.
• G.K. CHESTERTON (1874-1936). Chesterton was one of the great writers of the early 20th Century and had a huge influence on C.S. Lewis. He is well known for his works of apologetics, especially Orthodoxy (also on Kindle or audiobook), The Everlasting Man (also on audio), and Heretics (available on Kindle at Amazon or Audiobook from Librivox). But he is also well known for his poetry and fiction, especially his "Father Brown" mysteries, which have been adapted for television. You can find 49 of his works in audiobook at Librivox. A brief biography, list of quotes and collection of his works is found at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library. There is a wealth of information about Chesterton and his writings at The American Chesterton Society (including some notable theological essays). Christian History Magazine has an entire issue devoted to Chesterton (which is FREE in PDF). A critique of Chesterton that I found in the November 25, 1905 issue of The Outlook.
• DONALD GUTHRIE (1916-1992). "Theology on the Web" has a significant bibliography for Guthrie (with links and FREE pdf files). Guthrie was one of the great New Testament scholars of the 20th Century. Of particular interest are his articles on "The Development of the Idea of Canonical Pseudopigraphy in New Testament Criticism," "Dilemmas in New Testament Criticism" and "Biblical Authority and New Testament Scholarship." A brief biography and more extensive bibliography can be found at "Reformed Churchmen.
• COLIN J. HEMER (1930-1987). "Theology on the Web" has a substantial bibliography for Hemer (with links and FREE pdf files). I also found this brief biography/obituary of Hemer written by D.A. Carson.
• CARL F. HENRY (1913-2003). "Theology on the Web" has a substantial bibliography for Henry (with links and FREE pdf files). A biography of Henry can be found at Christianity Today (of which he was the first editor). "Theopedia" has a brief page for Henry. A much more concise biography is hosted at Wheaton College (Henry's alma mater).
• C.S. LEWIS (1898-1963). Audiobooks of God in the Dock, Letters to Malcolm, The Weight of Glory, and What Christians Believe are all FREE. The audiobook version of The Pilgrim's Regress is FREE at YouTube. And his classic The Abolition of Man is FREE here. Mere Christianity is available for FREE in ebook or audiobook. Perhaps no other book written in the 20th Century has had a greater impact than this classic. Mere Christianity was chosen as one of the top 25 Christian books of all time by Christian History Magazine, which devoted an article to it that serves as a very nice introduction. You can find a brief biography of Lewis (and much more) here. Find his important article "Modern Theology and Biblical Criticism" here (also titled "Fern-seeds and Elephants and Other Essays on Christianity".  A very large number of articles, essays, etc. by and about Lewis are hosted in the "C.S. Lewis Reading Room." Christian History Magazine has two entire issues (#7 & #88) devoted to Lewis (which are FREE in PDF). And Hillsdale College has a FREE online course on Lewis. Lewis' Life & Works and Annotated Bibliography at the C.S. Lewis Institute. "Theology on the Web" also has a brief bibliography with links. And "Theopedia" has a large page of various resources. A nice Timeline of Lewis' life  is at "The Official Web Site of C.S. Lewis."
• J. GRESHAM MACHEN (1881-1937). Find Machen's Christianity and Liberalism 
  available for FREE in ebook or audiobook or read online or for 99 cents on Kindle. Machen was one of the great scholars of the early 20th Century. (I cut my teeth on his New Testament Greek for Beginners during my first year of Greek.) He recognized the Trojan Horse of liberalism and wrote this prophetic classic to awake the Church. "Theopedia" has an excellent page of resources for Machen. "Theology on the Web" hosts a nice bibliography of Machen (with links and FREE pdf files). A brief biography of Machen can be found here. 
• WALTER R. MARTIN (1928-1989). Martin was a popular apologist and leading expert on the cults. He founded the Christian Research Institute (CRI) in 1960. He was probably best known for his classic book Kingdom of the Cults and for his role as "The Bible Answer Man" (succeeded by Hank Hanegraaff). There are two websites that archive things about his life and work: Walter Martin's Religious InfoNet and Walter Martin Jude 3. Theopedia has an excellent page of resources about him. There are also YouTubes of his lectures available.
• RONALD NASH (1936-2006). Nash was a brilliant and witty professor of philosophy and an author. None of his books are in the public domain but eight of his excellent seminary courses are archived in audio at Biblical Training. And you can find a brief biography of Nash, bibliographies, and other resources here.
• JOHN BARTON PAYNE (1922-1979). "Theology on the Web" has a substantial bibliography for Payne (with links). A brief biography of Payne and an excerpt from one of his sermons.
• SIR WILLIAM MITCHELL RAMSAY (1851-1939). I highly recommend St. Paul the Traveler and the Roman Citizen  (1895, 1907), which is FREE at Christian Classics Ethereal Library, where you will also find a nice summary of the book and a short biography of Ramsay. And here is a short article by Don Stewart quoting from this book and showing how Sir William Ramsay is related to settling the question of the historicity of Acts.
• FRANCIS SCHAEFFER (1912-1984). "The Real Francis Schaeffer" is a 57-minute talk by 3 different speakers who knew him. "Francis Schaeffer's 'True Truth'" is a 39-minute audio by Os Guiness. FrancisSchaefferStudies.org is a website dedicated to the study of the works of Francis and Edith Schaeffer--an amazing resource! "Theology on the Web" has a significant bibliography for Schaeffer (with links). And "Theopedia" also has an excellent variety of resources. Also see MOODY'S archive of 88 lectures by Francis Schaeffer.
• B.B. WARFIELD (1851-1921). "Theology on the Web" hosts an significant list of his works (with links and many FREE pdf files). The B.B. Warfield website is definitely worth checking out. A FREE version of Warfield's The Canon of the New Testament: How and When Formed. An article written with Archibald Hodge on the inspiration of Scripture. "Theopedia" has a biography and other resources for Warfield. 
• R.A. TORREY (1856-1928). An excellent biography of Torrey. Other biographical resources. Torrey edited The Fundamentals, a classic 4-volume defense of the faith published between 1910 and 1916, to which he contributed the following essay: "The Deity of Jesus Christ." More info about this work at Theopedia and this article: "The Untold Story of the Fundamentals." Also see: "Ten Reasons Why I Believe the Bible Is the Word of God" (1891).
• Digital Public Library of America has 51 ebooks in the category "Apologetics--History--20th Century."
• Digital Public Library of America has 15 ebooks in the category "Apologetics--20th Century."
• The Online Books Page (University of Pennsylvania) has 2 ebooks in the category "Apologetics--History--20th Century."

GENERAL
ONLINE RESOURCES
*Works of Dead Apologists: Resources for Study
*Apologetic Methodologies Past and Present: A series of 5 lectures by Phil Fernandes. Part of the Tabor Lecture Series at Western Reformed Seminary. A lot of focus on various apologists of the 20th Century.
*The Library of Historical Apologetics: An excellent resource by Dr. Timothy McGrew.
*"A Course of Readings in Apologetics": Dr. Timothy McGrew's recommended readings include many books from this period.
*"Juridical Apologists 1600-2000 AD: A Bio-Bibliographical Essay" by Philip Johnson
*Dead Apologists Society: An evangelical Facebook group for discussing the works of past apologists. I encourage you to join.
*The Biblical Legacy of Old Princeton: A lecture from the Tabor Lecture Series at Western Reformed Seminary.
*Top 10 *FREE* Classic Apologetics Books in ebook and audio
*Brief profiles of apologists from the past at Apologetics315


BOOKS
*A History of Apologetics by Avery Cardinal Dulles. You can find a 3-part review of this book here.
*Christian Apologetics Past and Present (Volume 1, To 1500 AD): A Primary Source Reader, edited by William Edgar and K. Scott Oliphint
*Christian Apologetics Past and Present (Volume 2, From 1500 AD): A Primary Source Reader, edited by William Edgar and K. Scott Oliphint
*Christian Apologetics: An Anthology of Primary Sources, edited by Khaldoun A. Sweis and Chad V. Meister